Elaine Cumming and Warren Earl Henrys Disengagement Theory Essay Example for Free

Elaine Cumming and Warren Earl Henrys Disengagement Theory Essay Disengage because of reduced physical health and loss of social activities * Cummings (1975) argued that older people would experience a reduction in social contact as they grow older and becoming increasingly ‘individual’ * ‘disengaging is a natural part of aging’ *   Everyone expects death, and ones abilities will likely deteriorate over time. As a result, every person will lose ties to others in his or her society. aging  is an inevitable, mutual withdrawal or disengagement, resulting in decreased interaction between theaging  person and others in the social system he belongs to. Embardos disagreement.. * Said theory was discredited for many reasons * Argues that majority of older people remain socially involved with family and friends . Maybe choose to spend more time with people they are close to rather than seeking new friends * Current data from the office for national statistics supports the view that a majority of older people enjoy social networks * if people only interact with close friends does this mean they are disengaged? * Argued that older people need to disengage but * They need to remain ‘active’ in order to stop disengagement going too far * Argues that society should provide older people with activities * Society should provide them with education of how to make use of the activities * It is very important for older adults to remain mentally active and maintain an interest in life and enjoy the company of others * The theory assumes that a positive relationship between activity and  life satisfaction| M2 – case study 1 Alan is a 76 year old man who has recently lost his wife. He is completely disengaged. He does not try to socialise as he is still grieving from the loss of his wife and can’t seem to pull himself around. Firstly the social disengagement theory will affect Alan’s social development; he is disengaging himself from any social activities or communications as he is grieving. This will have a negative effect on his social and emotional development as he is not talking to people to help him feel better or to get things ‘off his chest’, keeping it all locked away. This will have a negative effect and will make him a lot worse. It may also have a negative effect on his physical or physiological development as he may be susceptible to depression. This may lead to physical harm. The argument against this theory will however have a positive effect on Alan as he will be socialising with other people, helping tae his mind off the loss of his wife. He will also be engaging in social activities keeping his mind active positively effecting his intellectual development, and again taking his mind off his loss. The argument to this theory would also have a positive effect on his physical development as he will be getting around more when joining in activities. Lastly joining these activities will reflect on Alan’s emotional development and maybe help him to cope with his loss more as he is not constantly grieving over it. Bromleys activity theory would have a positive effect on Alan’s, physical, intellectual, social and emotional development. As the theory states, older people should be provided with activities and educated on these topics, this will help Alan’s intellectual development as his mind is still active, as he is gaining knowledge about the activities given and his brain will be engaging in the activities keeping it active also. This will also have a positive effect on Alan’s physical development as he will be taking part in the activities, enabling him to get around and be more fit and active. His social development will be effected greatly also as he will be constantly communicating with a lot of different people. Lastly his emotional development will be effected as he may cope with his loss a bit more successfully, and he may also discover a hobby he has taken a liking to. Case study 2 Geena is 86 years old and struggles to move around a lot. She is very upset that her mobility isn’t as strong as it used to be, and gets emotional at times when she tries to do something independently and cannot. Although she is independent she does not like being alone. As Geena is a very independent woman, the social disengagement theory has a negative effect on her physical development as it states, she is disengaged because her restricted mobility to get around. Not only does this affect her social development, but her physical too as she is straining herself to complete tasks that are difficult for her. This also has a negative effect on her emotional development as it upsets her that she cannot complete daily things she feels she needs to do. This does not affect her intellectual development. The disagreement to this theory would not affect Geena a lot as she is not disengaged. However it would affect her intellectual development positively if she joined a social networking site, as this would build up her knowledge of technology, effecting her social life also as she may get in touch with some old friends. This will not affect her emotional or physical development. Bromleys activity theory may affect Geena’s emotional development negatively as she has restricted mobility and would not be able to join any physical activities without becoming distressed and upset. However, if she joined activities such as bingo this would positively affect her social development as she would get out more an interact with a variety of different people, it would positively affect her emotionally as she will be able to complete activities without having to move or becoming distressed and upset about it. Lastly it will positively affect her intellectually as it will be keeping her mind active while she is concentrating on her activities.

Harry S Truman-The Early Years :: essays research papers

Discuss Truman’s early life, including early business, his army service and his political life up through his career in the Senate. Harry S. Truman was born on May 8, 1884, in Lamar, MO. He was the son of John Anderson and Martha Ellen Young Truman. A family compromise between grandfathers middle names, Shipp and Solomon resulted giving him only the middle initial S. Sometimes he used a period (.), sometimes he didn’t. In his early childhood, he moved yearly from farm to farm. In 1890 the family moved to Independence, MO where they remained until 1902. After graduating from High School, Truman worked at several odd jobs until landing a position as a clerk at The Union National Bank. Eventually in 1906, Truman moved back to his grandmother’s farm with his parents and took over running the family farm. Truman had an interest in a zinc and lead mine in Oklahoma—the venture failed with a loss of $2,000. He also invested in oil leases in Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas. Truman and two partners had a well drilled on property in Eureka, Kansas, but Truman gave it up when he joined the Army. Had he stayed back and run the drilling company, he probably would have become a millionaire. Truman took an interest in the Masons and was appointed presiding overseer of a Masonic Lodge and was later elected the lodge Grand Master in 1940. Harry Truman met Elizabeth Virginia (Bess) Wallace in Sunday school when they were both very young, but went through school, graduating together. The two were friendly all through school, although their friendship lapsed when Truman was living and working in Kansas City. When a plate had to be returned to Mrs. Wallace, Bess’ mother, Truman returned the plate and started courting Bess. By early 1917 they were engaged. When the US entered WWII, Truman was sent to Oklahoma as part of the National Guard. He and an advance contingent of the 129th Field Artillery Regiment sailed for France aboard the ‘George Washington.’ Shortly after arriving, Truman was promoted to the rank of Captain and was given command of Battery â€Å"D†, the most unruly group in the regiment. Truman was forthright with the men and it was later recounted that the men ‘idolized’ their captain, referring to him as â€Å"Captain Harry† for the rest of their lives. After the war, Truman and an Army buddy, Ed Jacobson, opened a haberdashery—the shop failed after a few years.

Transactional and Transformational Leadership

Harry works in a coal mine laboratory. At the start of each shift, Harry checks the work book which his supervisor completes, where clear instructions are given as to what task is required. Generally each task listed is the same each shift, and every task has a written procedure that must be followed in order to meet Quality Assurance Standards. At the end of each shift, Harry completes his shift report which is generally the same too. Harry has worked here for 25 years under the same supervisor. He knows the work isn’t stimulating but it pays well.The supervisor is always happy with Harry because he completes the tasks that are set, and never deviates from what is expected. Harry’s supervisor is a transactional leader – a rule follower who likes procedures with no deviations and expects nothing more than those written in the work book. Carly is a new employee at the laboratory. At the start of each shift she too checks the work book in hope that maybe something new or contrary to the norm has been written. Most days she will look for something extra to do but is often reprimanded for doing something that the next shift would do.Carly detests the supervisor, wishing the supervisor offered more. Carly dreams of a supervisor who is motivational, encouraging, one who appreciates an employee who goes above and beyond what is required and would appreciate suggested improvements to age old methods. Carly dreams of a transformational leader to provide inspiration, charisma, vision and promote intelligent thinking to an otherwise mundane regulated workplace. So what is transactional and transformational leadership and what can be expected from each style?The transactional leader works with the present cultural work environment within their organisation, following existing rules, procedures, expected outcomes and operating norms (Lindgreen, A et al. 2009). They have an exchange relationship (Erkutlu 2008) with their followers/subordinates/employees, where guidance and motivation is given to ‘their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements’ (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 342). It can take the form of contingent reward, management by exception (active and passive) and laissez-faire (Xirasagar 2008).Contingent reward refers to an exchange of rewards (whether verbal or tangible) for effort and good performance (Xirasagar 2008). Management by exception (active) is taking corrective action when a follower deviates from established rules and standards (Robbins et al. 2011). Management by exception (passive) is intervention taken by the transactional leader ‘only if standards are not met’ (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 342). A transactional leader of laissez-faire character is one who ‘abdicates responsibility’ and ‘avoids making decisions’ (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 342).As transactional leadership focuses on established norms and protocols, and â₠¬Ëœresults in expected outcomes’ (Erkutlu 2008, p. 711), followers will not extend themselves by going ‘above and beyond the call of duty’ (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 343). In comparison, the transformational leader is ‘capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers’ (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 342) through their charismatic, visionary, inspirational, intellectually stimulating characteristics and their concern for their followers (Erkutlu 2008). They are able to inspire their followers to rise above their own self-interests.Transformational leadership consists of four sub-constructs (individualised consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, idealised influence) which transformational leaders can use to invoke behaviour of followers that exceeds expectations ‘for the sake of the organisation’ (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 343). Individualised consideration is displayed to the follower by ‘giving per sonal attention’ (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 342) to their development needs, support and coaching (Erkutlu 2008). Intellectual stimulation ‘promotes intelligence, rationality and careful problem solving’ (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 342).Transformational leaders are able to demonstrate idealised influence by providing vision and a sense of mission, instilling pride and gaining respect and trust (Robbins et al. 2011) along with inspirational motivation by communicating ‘high expectations’ (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 342). Although a distinction between the two could be categorised as a difference in leadership flexibility, Robbins et al. (2011) maintains that each leadership style does not actually oppose the other; rather transformational leadership builds upon transactional leadership where levels of follower effort and performance exceed that of transactional leadership alone.However each style of leadership has its own individual strengths and weaknesses. Transformational leadership appears to be heralded as the superior leadership style; although transactional leadership does have its strengths. As ‘transactional leadership results in expected outcomes’ (Erkutlu 2008, p. 711), it is effective in organisations where the desired outcome is measured against ‘clear and precise financial measures, such as revenues per customer segment or the dollar volume of cross-selling’ (Lindgreen et al.2009, p. 26).Research conducted by Liu et al. (2011) has found that in occupations of low emotional labour, transactional leadership has made a positive contribution to team innovation. Whilst Wells & Peachey (2011, p. 5) have found that there is a negative relationship ‘between transactional leadership and voluntary organizational turnover intentions’. The application of equity theory’s procedural justice (‘the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards’ (R obbins et al. 2011, p.191) and distributive justice (‘perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals’ (Robbins et al. 2011, p. 191) may explain this negative relationship (Wells & Peachey 2011). Conversely, transactional leadership is not without its weaknesses.Subordinates of transactional leaders may feel a lower sense of organisation commitment and job satisfaction or commit sabotage against the organisation (Erkutlu 2008). As transactional leadership relies upon defined outcomes with leaders possibly dealing with deviations from the norm ‘with harsh criticisms’ (Liu et al.2010, p. 284), subordinate performance beyond what the leader has requested should not be expected; nor the discovery of new methods of problem solving as subordinates continue using tried and tested solutions ‘for fear of reproach’ (Liu et al. 2010, p. 284).Innovation amongst employees employed in high emotional labour positions is also likel y to be depressed under a transactional leader (Liu et al. 2010). Transactional leadership doesn’t allow for followers’ self-actualisation needs to be met; therefore followers may not reach their full ‘potential and self-fulfilment’ (Robbins et al.2011, p. 177).Where transactional leadership has clear weaknesses in respect of followers performance, transformational leadership builds upon this and bolsters followers’ willingness to perform above what is required. Transformational leadership can be thought of what transactional leadership is not. Transformational leaders are acutely aware of the organisations present culture but have a definite vision for the future. They enable this vision by changing the fundamental ‘values, goals, and aspirations of followers’ (Lindgreen et al. 2009, p.15) as the followers embrace the leader’s values.The result is that the followers perform their respective duties not because they expect to be r ewarded, but because it is in agreement with their new found values (Lindgreen et al. 2009). By strategically using positive emotions, the leader is able to encourage ‘optimism and positive approaches to group tasks’ (Mitchell & Boyle 2009, p. 463). Followers of transformational leadership experience heightened motivation through their leaders’ inspirational motivation and individualised consideration.Mitchell & Boyle’s (2009, p.462) research states that this ‘increases their cognitive flexibility to accept new ideas and comments from others’. Transformational leadership has proven advantageous where customer relationship development is important, for example formal customer introductions and personal selling (Lindgreen et al. 2009). Research conducted by Camps & Rodriguez (2011) established that employees working under a transformational leader within an organisation that fostered employee learning and skill improvement did not drive the foll ower to seek employment elsewhere because of their increased skill set.‘On the contrary, they see this as a commitment to the employer that has trusted and invested in them’ (Camps & Rodriguez 2011, p. 437). Although flaunted as the preferred leadership style in comparison to transactional leadership, there are weaknesses of transformational leadership. The charismatic elements of transformational leaders are difficult to reproduce if not naturally present in the personality of the leader. Therefore, organisations seeking applicants to lead in a transformational fashion are instantly subjected to a limited pool of suitable applicants (Muijs 2011).Even when the applicant is of strong transformational personality, a poor organisation fit will fail the applicant. So too will organisational structures that impede ‘the extent to which leaders can be truly transformational’ (Muijs 2011, p. 50). Over zealous transformational leaders can also incite passive resista nce from subordinates. In this situation, the subordinates will simply wait for the leader to ‘move on’ (Muijs 2011, p. 51). This type of resistance is prevalent in organisations that have ‘rapid management turnover’ (Muijs 2011, p.51).Transactional and transformational leadership are two contemporary styles of leadership that have their own strengths and weaknesses. Transactional leadership focuses on providing followers clarified tasks requirements in order to achieve desired outcomes, whereas transformational leadership involves the ability of the leader to motivate, inspire, influence and consider their followers in order for the follower to take on the leader’s vision and perform above and beyond what is expected.Transactional leadership is effective in organisations where the desired outcome is definitive however is not conductive in promoting innovation amongst high emotional labour employees or allowing for self-actualisation needs to be met. Transformational leadership is effective in empowering followers and producing results such as employees performing above and beyond what is required. However it can be overbearing for employees who have not embraced transformational leadership exercising passive resistance to such a contemporary style of leadership.

The Portrayal Of An Issue Like Mental Illness - 1328 Words

It is easy for an audience to be manipulated by the media. The portrayal of an issue like mental illness is totally vulnerable to misrepresentation. Depending on who is writing and their viewpoint, it does not take much to make this issue sympathetic or demonized. If the author of a given piece wants his or her audience to demonize something, the author might use the word isolation†. If that same author wants a sympathetic response he might use the word loneliness†. As far as the New York Times is concerned, they opted for a stereotypical portrayal. It is true that Lanza is indeed a mass murdered, but must the story fit the profile now that the deed is done? Apparently, for the New York Times, it must.Accoring to Margaret Price, she is making the same point of how the media represent disabilities. She says the accounts that the media inflect public myths about mental disability, race, class, nationality and gender ... For example, in the headline of Alison Leigh Cowanâ₠¬â„¢s story, she uses the terms, Mental Problems instead of mental issues. If this story were about a man like Adam Lanza saving someone instead of killing someone, the Times might have used the word issues â€Å"instead of problems . Also Price points out, the general choice of what to include in the headline is biased toward the sensational or what fits in with the myth†. Why include the word shooting at all? The reason is obvious. It is meant to attract the reader and it also serves to prejudice him/her atShow MoreRelatedThe Portrayal Of Mental Illness962 Words   |  4 PagesPortrayal of mental illness in media, films and television programmes is extensive and predominantly preserves myths and stereotypes about mental illness. People with mental illness are most commonly shown as being violent and aggressive, but they are also frequently depicted as tragic, tortured, genius, dangerous, eccentric, flamboyant, hysterical, sexual, jokers and rebels. Mental health profession als are variously portrayed as incompetent, sinister, unrealistically seductive or rationalist foilsRead MoreMental Illness And The Media1540 Words   |  7 PagesIn the media when you hear the word â€Å"mental illness† most of the time its associated with words like â€Å"dangerous,† â€Å"monster,† or better yet â€Å"psychopath†. Shawn M Phillips in â€Å"mental illness in popular culture† (p.64) states that at the end of the day, â€Å"mental illness and disabilities are all just clustered into one vague group of â€Å"deviants† by popular culture.† This is not to say it isn t ever associated with positive words like â€Å"beautiful,† â€Å"normal,† and â€Å"kind. 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When it comes to mental illness, it is safe to say that much of society views the mentally ill as deviants who are capricious and potentially dangerous. Or at least, that is how they are sometimes portrayed in movies, books, music, magazines, etc. Those who are knowledgeable about the severity and seriousness of mental illnesses often view the media portrayals as offensiveRead MoreHealthy Minds Movie Analysis Essay1027 Words   |  5 PagesHealthy Minds Character Analysis 1. Using evidence, explain if Charlie has a mental illness? Describe the symptoms and behaviours that are specific to the mental illness that you believe he has. The behaviour that the main protagonist Charlie displays throughout the film indicate that he is suffering from a mental illness, possibly multiple ones. A deviant behaviour that he shows in the film is his tendency to confide in his diary instead of talking to the people around him. He refers to the diaryRead MoreAnalysis Of The Movie Girl Interrupted 1252 Words   |  6 PagesGirl, Interrupted is a captivating and striking film about the struggle of coming to terms with mental health and overcoming personal obstacles to allow treatment and support. While the main character Susanna Kaysen stays in the Claymoore psychiatric hospital, she is introduced to a whole new world, one where she is forced to confront the fact that she has a mental illness and needs professional help. The film begins with Susanna and the other girls from the hospital sitting in somber silenceRead MoreSarah and Angela The Many Misconceptions and Misunderstandings of Schizophrenia Misunderstood with1200 Words   |  5 Pagestruly understood and represented, from the effects of the disease to the availability of treatment. 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